Everything about Provence totally explained
Provence (
Provençal Occitan:
Provença in classical norm or
Prouvènço in Mistralian norm) is a region of southeastern
France on the
Mediterranean Sea adjacent to Italy. It is part of the administrative
région of
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. The traditional region of Provence comprises the
départements of
Var,
Vaucluse, and
Bouches-du-Rhône and parts of
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and
Alpes-Maritimes. Provence is so named because it was the first Roman province outside of Italy.
History of Provence
Prehistoric Provence
Provence has been inhabited since prehistoric times.
Paleolithic sites dating to 900,000 B.C. have been found along the
Côte d'Azur in the interior country above
Nice, at the Cave of Valloet (near
Roquebrune) and a site dating to 600,000 B.C. at
Terra Amata, in the
Alpes-Maritimes. Remains of a settlement dating to between 27,000 and 19,000 B.C. were found by Henri Cosquer in 1991 at the
Cosquer Cave, an underwater cave in a calanque on the coast near
Marseille. The cave walls were decorated with drawings of bisons, seals, penguins, horses and outlines of human hands. A neolithic site dating to about 6,000 B.C. was discovered in
Marseille near the Saint Charles railway station.
Dolmens from the
Bronze Age (2,500-900 B.C.) can be found near
Draguignan and the Valley of Marvels near Mt. Bégo in the Alpes-Maritimes, at an altitude of 2000 meters, has an outdoor sanctuary with more than 40,000 rock carvings.
The Greeks in Provence
Greek sailors from Asia Minor began to arrive along the coast in the 7th Century B.C.. establishing depots (emporia) for trade with the local inhabitants. The first permanent Greek settlement was
Massalia, established at modern-day
Marseille in about 546 B.C. by colonists coming from
Phocaea (now
Foça, in modern Turkey) on the
Aegean coast of
Asia Minor, who were fleeing an invasion by the
Persians. Massalia became one of the major trading ports of the ancient world. The Phocaeans also established colonies at Nicoea (now
Nice), Tauroentum and Rohanousia (now
Arles); at
Cannes, and south of
Nimes.
Other Greek settlements were established at Olbia (modern Saint-Pierre d l'Almanarre, near
Hyeres);
Antipolis (modern
Antibes). The Greek traders ventured inland by rivers (the
Durance and
Rhone) deep into France, and overland to Switzerland and Burgundy. One enterprising Greek navigator,
Pytheas, sailed from Marseille as far as
Cornwall in
England between 330 and 320 B.C. in search of
tin.
The Ligures and Gauls in Provence
The
Ligures, a
Celtic people probably coming from
Asia Minor, began to enter Provence in about the 4th Century B.C.., and reached as far as Rome in 390 B.C. They and established their own hilltop towns and forts throughout the region. Different tribes settled in different parts of Provence; the
Cavates settled in the
Vaucluse; the
Oxybii and
Deciates in the
Var and
Alpes-Maritimes; the
Voconces in the
Drome; and the
Salyens in Lower Provence. . The Ligures were gradually assimilated by another Celtic people, the
Gauls, and they were soon in conflict with the people of Massalia. They aided the passage of
Hannibal, on his way to attack
Rome (sometime between 247 and 183 B.C.) while the people of Massalia looked upon Rome as a potential ally.
Roman Provence (2nd Century B.C. to 5th Century A.D.)
In the
2nd Century BC the people of Massalia appealed to Rome for help against the Ligures. Roman legions entered Provence three times; first in 181 B.C. the Romans suppressed Ligurian uprisings near Genoa; in 154 B.C. the Roman Consul Optimus defeated the
Oxybii and the
Deciates, who were attacking Antibes; and in 125 B.C., the Romans put down an uprising of a confederation of Celtic tribes. After this battle, the Romans decided to establish permanent settlements in Provence. In 122 B.C., next to the Celtic town of Entremont, the Romans built a new town, Aquae Sextiae, later called
Aix-en-Provence. In 118 B.C. they founded
Narbonne.
The Roman general
Gaius Marius crushed the last serious resistance in 102 B.C. by defeating the
Cimbri and the
Teutons. He then began building roads to facilitate troop movements and commerce between Rome, Spain and Northern Europe; one from the coast inland to
Apt and
Tarascon, and the other along the coast from Italy to Spain, passing through
Frejus and Aix-en-Provence.
In 49 B.C., Massalia had the misfortune to choose the wrong side in the power struggle between
Pompey and
Julius Caesar. Pompey was defeated, and Massalia lost its territories and political influence. Roman veterans, in the meantime, populated two new towns, Arles and Frejus, at the sites of older Greek settlements.
In 8 B.C. the Emperor
Augustus built a triumphal monument at
La Turbie to commemorate the pacification of the region, and he began to Romanize Provence politically and culturally. Roman engineers and architects built monuments, theaters, baths, villas, fora, arenas and
aquaducts, many of which still exist. (See
Architecture of Provence.) Roman towns were built at
Cavaillon;
Orange;
Arles;
Fréjus;
Glanum (outside
Saint-Rémy-de-Provence,);
Carpentras,
Vaison-la-Romaine;
Nimes;
Vernègues;
Saint-Chamas and
Cimiez (above Nice). The Roman province, which was called
Narbonensis, for its capital, Narbo (modern Narbonne), extended from Italy to Spain, and from the
Alps to the
Pyrenees.
The
Pax Romana in Provence lasted until the middle of the
3rd Century.
Germanic tribes invaded Provence in 257 and 275. At the beginning the
4th century, the court of Roman Emperor Constantine (280-337) was forced to take refuge in Arles. By the end of the
5th century, Roman power in Provence had vanished, and an age of invasions, wars, and chaos began.
The arrival of Christianity in Provence (3rd-6th centuries)
There are many legends about the earliest Christians in Provence, but they're difficult to verify. It is documented that there were organized churches and
bishops in the Roman towns of Provence as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries; in
Arles in 254;
Marseille in 314;
Orange,
Vaison and
Apt in 314;
Cavaillon,
Digne,
Embrun,
Gap, and
Fréjus at the end of the 4th century;
Aix-en-Provence in 408;
Carpentras,
Avignon,
Riez,
Cimiez and
Vence in 439;
Antibes in 442;
Toulon in 451;
Senez in 406,
Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux in 517; and
Glandèves in 541..
The oldest still-existing Christian structure in Provence is the baptistery of the cathedral in Fréjus, dating from the
5th century. At about the same time, in the 5th century, the first two monasteries in Provence were founded;
Lérins, on an island near Cannes; and
Saint-Victor in Marseille.
Germanic invasions, Merovingians and Carolingians (5th-9th centuries)
Beginning in the second half of the 5th century, as Roman power waned, successive waves of Germanic tribes entered Provence; first the
Visigoths (480); then the
Ostrogoths; then the
Burgundians; then the
Franks in the
6th century.
Arab invaders and
Berber pirates came from North Africa to the Coast of Provence the beginning of the
7th century.
During this chaotic period, Provence was ruled by Frankish kings of
Merovingian dynasty, then
Carolingian Kings, descended from Charles Martel; and then was part of the empire of
Charlemagne (742-814). In 879, after the death of the Carolingian ruler
Charles the Bald,
Boso of Provence, (also known as Boson), his brother-in-law, broke away from the Carolingian kingdom of
Louis III and was elected the first ruler of an independent state of Provence.
The Counts of Provence (9th Century - 13th Century)
Three different dynasties of Counts ruled Provence during the Middle Ages, and Provence became a prize in the complex rivalries between the
Catalan rulers of
Barcelona, the
Kings of Burgundy, the German rulers of the
Holy Roman Empire, and the
Angevin Kings of France.
The
Bosonids (879-1112) were the descendants of the first King of Provence, Boson. His son,
Louis the Blind (890-928) lost his sight trying to win the throne of Italy, after which his cousin,
Hugh of Italy (died 947) became the Duke of Provence and the Count of Vienne. Hugh moved the capital of Provence from Vienne to Arles and made Provence a
fief of
Rudolph II of Burgundy.
In the 9th century, Arab pirates (Called
Saracens by the French) and then the
Normans invaded Provence. The Normans pillaged the region and then left, but the Saracens built castles and began raiding towns and holding local residents for ransom. Early in 973, the Saracens captured Maieul, the
Abbot of the Monastery at
Cluny, and held him for ransom. The ransom was paid and the abbot was released, but the people of Provence, led by
Count William I rose up and defeated the Saracens near their most powerful fortress Fraxinetum (
La Garde-Freinet) at the
Battle of Tourtour. The Saracens who were not killed at the battle were baptized and made into slaves, and the remaining Saracens in Provence fled the region.
Meanwhile, the dynastic quarrels continued. A war between Rudolph III of
Burgundy and his rival, the German Emperor
Conrad the Salic in 1032 led to Provence becoming a fiefdom of the
Holy Roman Empire, which it remained until 1246.
In 1112, the last descendant of Boson,
Douce I of Provence, married the Catalan
Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, who as a result became Raymond Berenguer I, Count of Provence. He ruled Provence from 1112 until 1131, and his descendants, the
Catalan Dynasty ruled Provence until 1246. In 1125, Provence was divided; the part of Provence north and west of the
Durance River went to the
Count of Toulouse, while the lands between the
Durance and the Mediterranean, and from the Rhone River to the Alps, belonged to the Counts of Provence. The capital of Provence was moved from Arles to Aix-en-Provence, and later to
Brignoles.
Under the Catalan dynasty, the 12th century saw the construction of important
cathedrals and
abbeys in Provence, in a harmonious new style, the romanesque, which united the
Gallo-Roman style of the Rhone Valley with the
Lombard style of the Alps.
Aix Cathedral was built on the site of the old Roman forum, and then rebuilt in the
gothic style in the 13th and 14th centuries. The
Church of St. Trophime in Arles was a landmark of romaneque architecture, built between the 12th and the 15th centuries. A vast fortress-like monastery,
Montmajour Abbey, was built on an island just north of Arles, and became a major destination for medieval pilgrims.
In the 12th century three
Cistercian monasteries were built in remote parts of Provence, far from the political intrigues of the cities.
Sénanque Abbey was the first, established in the Luberon 1148 and 1178.
Le Thoronet Abbey was founded in a remote valley near
Draguignan in 1160.
Silvacane Abbey, on the Durance River at
La Roque-d'Anthéron, was founded in 1175.
In the
13th century, the French kings of the
Angevin dynasty used marriage to extend their influence into the south of France. One son of Queen
Blanche of Castile married the heir of the Count of Toulouse, and another,
Louis IX or Saint Louis (1214-1270), married
Marguerite of Provence; then, in 1246, Charles, the younger brother of Louis IX, married
Beatrice of Provence, and Provence became a fief of the
French Crown.
The Popes in Avignon (14h Century)
In 1309,
Pope Clement V, who was originally from Bordeaux, moved the
Roman Catholic Papacy to
Avignon. From 1309 until 1377. seven Popes reigned in Avignon before the
Schism between the Roman and Avignon churches, which led to the creation of rival popes in both places. After that three
Antipopes reigned in Avignon until 1423, when the Papacy finally returned to Rome. Between 1334 and 1363 Popes
Benedict XII built the old Papal Palace of Avignon, and
Clement VI built the New Palace; together the
Palais des Papes was the largest gothic church in Europe..
The 14th century was a terrible time in Provence, and all of Europe: the population of Provence had been about 400,000 people; the
Black Plague
(1348-1350) killed fifteen thousand people in Arles, half the population of the city, and greatly reduced the population of the whole region. The defeat of the French Army during the
Hundred Years War forced the cities of Provence to build walls and towers to defend themselves against armies of former soldiers who ravaged the countryside.
The Angevin rulers of Provence also had a difficult time. An assembly of nobles, religious leaders, and town leaders of Provence was organized to resist the authority of Queen
Joan I of Naples (1343-1382.) She was murdered by her cousin and heir, Charles of Duras, in 1382, which started a new war, and led in 1388 to the separation of
Nice,
Puget-Théniers and
Barcelonnette from Provence, and their attachment to the territories of
Savoy.
Good King René, the last ruler of Provence
The 15th century saw a series of wars between the Catalan rulers of
Aragon and the Angevin Counts of Provence. In 1423 the army of Alphonse of Aragon captured Marseille, and in 1443 they captured Naples, and forced its ruler, King
René I of Naples, to flee. He eventually settled in one of his remaining territories, Provence.
History and legend has given René the title "Good King Réne of Provence", though he only lived in Provence in the last ten years of his life, from 1470 to 1480, and his political policies of territorial expansion were costly and unsuccessful. Provence benefitted from population growth and economic expansion, and René was a generous patron of the arts, sponsoring painters
Nicolas Froment,
Louis Bréa, and other masters. He also completed one of the finest castles in Provence at
Tarascon, on the Rhone River.
When René died in 1480, his title passed to his nephew
Charles du Maine. One year later, in 1481, when Charles died, the title passed to
Louis XI of France. Provence was legally incorporated into the French royal domain in 1486.
Provence until the French Revolution
Soon after Provence became part of France, it became involved in the
Wars of Religion that swept the country in the
16th century. Between 1493 and 1501, many Jews were expelled from their homes and sought sanctuary in the region of Avignon, which was still under the direct rule of the Pope. In 1545, the Parliament of Aix] ordered the destruction of the villages of Lourmarin, Mérindol, Cabriéres in the Luberon, because their inhabitants were
Vaudois, of Italian
Piedmontese origin, and were not considered sufficiently orthodox catholics. Most of Provence remained strongly Catholic, with only one enclave of
Protestants, the principality of
Orange, Vaucluse, an enclave ruled by Prince William of the
House of Orange-Nassau of the
Netherlands, which was created in 1544 and wasn't incorporated into France until 1673. An army of the
Catholic League laid siege to the Protestant city of Mėnerbes in the
Vaucluse between 1573 and 1578. The wars didn't stop until the end of the 16th century, with the consolidation of power in Provence by the
House of Bourbon kings.
The semi-independent Parliament of Provence in Aix and some of the cities of Provence, particularly Marseille, continued to rebel against the authority of the Bourbon king. After uprisings in 1630-31 and 1648-1652, the young King
Louis XIV had two large forts, fort St. Jean and Fort St. Nicholas, built at the harbor entrance to control the city's unruly population.
At the beginning of the 16th century,
Cardinal Richelieu began to build a naval arsenal and dockyard at
Toulon to serve as a base for a new French Mediterreanean fleet. The base was greatly enlarged by
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV, who also commissioned his chief military engineer
Vauban to strengthen the fortifications around the city.
At the beginning of the 17th century Provence had a population of about 450,000 people. It was predominantly rural, devoted to raising wheat, wine, and olives, with small industries for tanning, pottery, perfume-making, and ship and boat building. There was considerable commerce along the coast, and up and down the Rhone River. The cities: Marseille, Toulon,Avignon and Aix-en-Provence, saw the construction of boulevards and richly-decorated private houses.
At the beginning of the 18th century Provence suffered from the economic malaise of the end of the reign of Louis XIV. The plague struck the region between 1720 and 1722, beginning in Marseille, killing some 40,000 people. Still,by the end of the century, many artisinal industries began to flourish; making
perfumes in
Grasse; olive oil in Aix and the Alpilles; textiles in Orange, Avignon and Tarascon; and
faience pottery in Marseille, Apt, Aubagne, and
Moustiers-Sainte-Marie. Many immigrants arrived from Liguria and the Piedmont in Italy. By the end of the 18th century, Marseille had a population of 120,000 people, making it the third largest city in France..
Provence during the French Revolution
Though most of Provence, with the exception of Marseille, Aix and Avignon, was rural, conservative and largely royalist, it did produce some memorable figures in the
French Revolution;
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau from Aix, who tried to moderate the Revolution, and turn France into a
constitutional monarchy like England; the
Marquis de Sade from Lacoste in the Luberon, who was a Deputy from the far left in the National Assembly;
Charles Barbaroux from Marseille, who sent a battalion of volunteers to Paris to fight in the
French Revolutionary Army; and
Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748-1836), an abbé, essayist and political leader, who was one of the chief theorists of the French Revolution,
French Consulate, and First French Empire, and who, in 1799, was the instigator of the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire, which brought
Napoleon Bonaparte to power.
Provence also produced the most memorable song of the period, the
La Marseillaise. Though the song was originally written by a citizen of
Strasbourg,
Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in 1792, and it was originally a war song for the revolutionary Army of the Rhine, it became famous when it sung on the streets of Paris by the volunteers from Marseille, who had heard it when it was sung in Marseille by a young volunteer from
Montpellier named François Mireur. It became the most popular song of the Revolution, and in 1879 became the national anthem of France.
The Revolution and
Reign of Terror was as violent and bloody in Provence as it was in other parts of France. On
April 30 1790, Fort Saint-Nicolas in Marseille was besieged, and many of the soldiers inside were massacred. On
October 17 1791 a massacre of royalists and religious figures took place in the ice storage rooms (
glaciere) of the prison of the Palace of the Popes in Avignon.
When the radical
Montagnards seized power from the
Girondins in May 1793, a real counter-revolution broke out in Avignon, Marseille and Toulon. A revolutionary army under General Carteaux recaptured Marseille in August 1793 and renamed it "City without a Name" (
Ville sans Nom.) In Toulon, the opponents of the Revolution handed the city to a British and Spanish fleet on
August 28 1793. A Revolutionary Army laid siege to the British positions for four months (see the
Siege of Toulon), and finally, thanks to the enterprise of the young commander of artillery,
Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the British and drove them out in December, 1793. About 15,000 royalists escaped with the British fleet, but five to eight hundred of the 7,000 who remained were shot on the Champ de Mars, and Toulon was renamed "Port la Montagne".
The fall of the Montagnards in July 1794 was followed by a new
White Terror aimed at the revolutionaries. Calm was only restored by the rise of Napoleon to power in 1795.
Provence under Napoleon I
Napoleon restored the belongings and power of the families of the old regime in Provence, but his wars against England and the Allies were deeply unpopular. The British fleet of Admiral
Horatio Nelson blockaded Toulon, and almost all martime commerce was stopped, causing widespread hardship and poverty. When Napoleon was defeated, his fall was celebrated in Provence. When he escaped from
Elba on
March 1 1815, and landed at Golfe-Juan, he detoured to avoid the cities of Provence, which were hostile to him.
Provence in the 19th Century
Image Provence enjoyed prosperity in the 19th century; the ports of Marseille and Toulon connected Provence with the expanding
French Empire in North Africa and the Orient, especially after the opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869.
In April-July 1859,
Napoleon III made a secret agreement with
Cavour, Prime Minister of
Piedmont, for France to assist in expelling
Austria from the
Italian peninsula and bringing about a united Italy, in exchange for Piedmont ceding
Savoy and the
Nice region to France. He went to war with Austria in 1859 and won a victory at
Solferino, which resulted in Austria ceding
Lombardy to Piedmont, and, in return, Napoleon received Savoy and Nice in 1860, and
Roquebrune and
Menton in 1861.
The railroad connected Paris with Marseille (1848) and then with Toulon and Nice (1864).
Nice,
Antibes and Hyeres became popular winter resorts for European royalty, including
Queen Victoria. Under Napoleon III, Marseille grew to a population of 250,000, includiing a very large Italian community. Toulon had a population of 80,000. The large cities like Marseille and Toulon saw the building of churches, opera houses, grand boulevards, and parks.
After the fall of Louis Napoleon following the defeat in the
Franco-German War barricades went up in the streets of Marseille (
March 23 1871) and the Communards, led by Gaston Cremieux and following the lead of the
Paris Commune, took control of the city. The Commune was crushed by the army and Cremieux was executed on
November 30 1871. Though Provence was generally conservative, it often elected reformist leaders; Prime Minister
Leon Gambetta was the son of a Marseille grocer, and future prime minister
Georges Clemenceau was elected deputy from the Var in 1885.
The second half of the 19th century saw a revival of the
Provencal language and culture, particularly traditional rural values. driven by a movement of writers and poets called the Felibrige, led by poet
Frederic Mistral. Mistral achieved literary success with his novel
Miréio (
Mireille in French); he was awarded the
Nobel Prize for literature in 1904.
Provence in the 20th Century
Between
World War I and
World War II Provence was bitterly divided between the more conservative rural areas and the more radical big cities. There were wide-spread strikes in Marseille in 1919, and riots in Toulon in 1935.
After the defeat of France by Germany in June 1940, France was divided into an occupied zone and unoccupied zone, with Provence in the unoccupied zone. Parts of eastern Provence were occupied by Italian soldiers. Collaboration and passive resistance gradually gave way to more active resistance, particularly after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. and the Communist Party became active in the resistance.
Jean Moulin, the deputy of
Charles DeGaulle, the leader of the Free France resistance movement, was parachuted into
Eygalières, in the
Bouches-du-Rhône on
January 2 1942 to unite the diverse resistance movements in all of France against the Germans.
In November 1942, following Allied landings in North Africa (
Operation Torch), the Germans occupied all of Provence (
Operation Atilla) and then headed for Toulon (
Case Anton).The French fleet at Toulon sabotaged its ships to keep them from falling into German hands.
The Germans began a systematic rounding-up of French Jews and refugees from Nice and Marseille. Many thousands were taken to concentration camps, and few survived. A large quarter around the port of Marseille was emptied of inhabitants and dynamited, so it wouldn't serve as a base for the resistance. Nonetheless, the resistance grew stronger; the leader of the pro-German militia, the Milice, in Marseille was assassinated in April 1943.
On
August 15 1944, two months after the Allied landings in Normandy (
Operation Overlord), the
Seventh United States Army under General
Alexander M. Patch, with a
Free French corps under General
Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, landed on the coast of the Var between
St. Raphael and
Cavalaire (
Operation Dragoon). The American forces moved north toward
Manosque,
Sisteron and
Gap, while the French First Armored Division under General Vigier liberated Brignoles, Salon, Arles, and Avignon. The Germans in Toulon resisted until August 27, and Marseille wasn't liberated until August 25.
After the end of the War, Provence faced an enormous task or repair and reconstruction, particularly of the ports and railroads destroyed during the war. As part of this effort, the first modern concerete apartment block, the
Unité d'Habitation of
Corbusier, was built in Marseille in 1947-52. In 1962, Provence absorbed a large number of French citizens who left Algeria after its independence. Since that time, large North African communities settled in and around the big cities, particularly Marseille and Toulon.
In the 1940s, Provence underwent a cultural renewal, with the founding of the
Avignon Festival of theater (1947), the reopening of the
Cannes Film Festival (begun in 1939), and many other major events. With the building of new highways, particularly the Paris Marseille autoroute which opened in 1970, Provence became destination for mass tourism from all over Europe. Many Europeans, particularly from Britain, bought summer houses in Provence. The arrival of the
TGV high-speed trains shortened the trip from Paris to Marseille to less than four hours.
At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the residents of Provence were struggling to reconcile economic development and population growth with their desire to preserve the landscape and culture that make Provence unique.
Extent and geography
The original Roman province was called
Gallia Transalpina, then
Gallia Narbonensis, or simply
Provincia Nostra ('Our Province') or
Provincia. It extended from the
Alps to the
Pyrenees and north to the
Vaucluse, with its capital in Narbo Martius (present-day
Narbonne.)
In the
15th century the Conté of Provence was bounded by the
Var River on the east, the
Rhône River to the west, with the
Mediterranean Sea to the south, and a northern border that roughly followed the
Durance River.
Rivers of Provence
The
Rhône River, on the western border of Provence, is one of the major rivers of France, and has been a highway of commerce and communications between inland France and the Mediterranean for centuries. It rises as the effluent of the
Rhône Glacier in
Valais,
Switzerland, in the
Saint-Gotthard massif, at an altitude of 1753 m.. It is joined by the river
Saône at Lyon. Along the Rhône Valley, it's joined on the right bank by
Cévennes rivers
Eyrieux,
Ardèche,
Cèze and
Gardon or
Gard, on the left Alps bank by rivers
Isère,
Drôme,
Ouvèze and
Durance.
At Arles, the Rhône divides itself in two arms, forming the
Camargue delta, with all branches flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. One arm is called the "Grand Rhône", the other one is the "Petit Rhône".
The
Durance River, a tributary of the Rhône, has its source in the Alps near
Briançon. It flows south-west through
Embrun,
Sisteron,
Manosque.
Cavaillon, and
Avignon. where it meets the Rhône.
The
Verdon River is a tributary of the Durance, rising at an altitude of 2400 meters in the soutwestern Alps near Barcelonette, and flowing southwest for 175 kilometers through the
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and
Var (départements before it reaches the Durance at near
Vinon-sur-Verdon, south of
Manosque. The Verdon is best known for its impressive
canyon: the
Verdon Gorge. This limestone canyon, also called the 'Grand Canyon of Verdon', 20 kilometres in length and more than 300 metres deep, is a popular climbing and sight-seeing area.
The
Var River rises near the Col de la Cayolle (2,326 m/7,631 ft) in the
Maritime Alps and flows generally southeast for 120 km (76 mi) into the Mediterranean between
Nice and
Saint-Laurent-du-Var. Before Nice was returned to France in 1860, the Var marked the eastern border of France along the Mediterranean. The Var is the unique case in France of a river giving a name to a department, but not flowing through that department.
The Camargue
With an area of over 930 km² (360 sq. miles), the
Camargue is western Europe's largest river delta (technically an island, as it's wholly surrounded by water). It is a vast plain comprising large
brine lagoons or
étangs, cut off from the sea by sandbars and encircled by
reed-covered
marshes which are in turn surrounded by a large cultivated area.
The Camargue is home to more than 400 species of birds, the brine ponds providing one of the few European habitats for the
greater flamingo. The marshes are also a prime habitat for many species of insects, notably (and notoriously) some of the most ferocious
mosquitos to be found anywhere in France. It is also famous for bulls,
Black Bear and the
Camargue horse.
Mountains of Provence
If the
Maritime Alps, along the border with
Italy, are considered part of Provence, they're the highest peaks in the region. They form the border between the
French département Alpes-Maritimes and the
Italian province of Cuneo.
Mercantour National Park is located in the Maritime Alps.
The chief peaks of the Maritime Alps are:
Outside of the Maritime Alps,
Mont Ventoux (Occitan: Ventor in classical norm or Ventour in Mistralian norm, at 1909 meters or 6,263 feet, is the highest peak in Provence. It is located some 20 km north-east of Carpentras, Vaucluse. On the north side, the mountain borders the Drôme département. It is nicknamed the "Giant of Provence", or "The Bald Mountain". Although geologically part of the
Alps, is often considered to be separate from them, due to the lack of mountains of a similar height nearby. It stands alone to the west of the
Luberon range, and just to the east of the
Dentelles de Montmirail, its foothills. The top of the mountain is bare limestone without vegetation or trees. The white limestone on the mountain's barren peak means it appears from a distance to be snow-capped all year round (its snow cover actually lasts from December to April).
The
Alpilles are a chain of small mountains located about 20 km (12 miles) south of Avignon. Although they're not particularly high - only some 387 m (1,270 ft) at their highest point - the Alpilles stand out sinc they rise abruptly from the plain of the
Rhône valley. The range is about 25 km long by about 8 to 10 km wide, running in an east-west direction between the Rhône and
Durance rivers. The landscape of the Alpilles is one of arid
limestone peaks separated by dry valleys.
Montagne Sainte-Victoire is probably the best-known mountain in Provence, thanks to the painter
Paul Cezanne, who could see it from his home, and painted it frequently.
It is a
limestone mountain ridge which extends over 18 kilometres between the
départements of
Bouches-du-Rhône and
Var. Its highest point is the
Pic des mouches at 1,011 metres (3,316 ft).
The
Massif des Maures (Mountains of the Moors) is a small chain of mountains that lies along the coast of the Mediterranean in the Var Department between
Hyères et
Fréjus. Its highest point is the signal de la Sauvette, 780 meters high. The name is a souvenir of the
Moors (
Maures in Old French),
Arabs and
Berbers from North Africa, who settled on the coast of Provence in the 9th and 10th centuries.
The massif des Maures extends about sixty kilometers along the coast, and reaches inland about thirty kilometers. On the north it's bordered by a depression which is followed by the routes nationales 97 and 7 and the railroad line between Toulon and Nice. On the south it ends abruptly at the Mediterraenan, forming a broken and abrupt coastline.
The peninsula of
Saint-Tropez is part of the Massif des Maures, along with the peninsula of Giens and the islands offshore of Hyères; Porquerolles, Port-Cros, and île du Levant. Cape Sicié, west of
Toulon, as well as the massif of
Tanneron, belong geologically to the massif des Maures.
The Calanques
The
Calanques also known as the
Massif des Calanques, are a dramatic feature of the Provence coast, a 20-kilomter long series of narrow inlets in the cliffs of the coastline between
Marseille on the east and
Cassis on the west. The highest peak in the massif is
Mont Puget, 565 meters high.
The best known calanques of the Massif des Calanques include the
Calanque de Sormiou, the
Calanque de Morgiou, the Calanque d'En-Vau, the Calanque de Port-Pin and the
Calanque de Sugiton.
Calanques are remains of ancient river mouths formed mostly during Tertiary. Later, during quaternary glaciations, as glaciers swept by, they further deepened those valleys which would eventually (at the end of the last glaciation) be invaded with sea and become calanques.
The
Cosquer cave is an underwater grotto in the Calanque de Morgiou, 37 m underwater, that was inhabited during
Paleolithic era, when the sea level was much lower than today. Its walls are covered with paintings and engravings dating back to between 27,000 and 19,000 BC, depicting animals such as bison, ibex, and horses as well as sea mammals such as seals and auks.
Landscapes of Provence
The
Garrigue is the typical landscape of Provence; is a type of low, soft-leaved
scrubland found on limestone soils around the
Mediterranean Basin, generally near the seacoast, where the climate is moderate,, but where there are annual summer
drought conditions.
Juniper and stunted
holm oaks are the typical trees; aromatic lime-tolerant shrubs such as
lavender,
sage,
rosemary,
wild thyme and
Artemisia are common garrigue plants. The open landscape of the garrigue is punctuated by dense thickets of
Kermes oak.
Climate
Most of Provence has a
Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers, mild winters, little snow, and abundant sunshine. Within Provence there are micro-climates and local variations, ranging from the Alpine climate inland from Nice to the continental climate in the northern
Vaucluse. The
winds of Provence are an important feature of the climate, particularly the
mistral, a cold, dry wind which, especially in the winter, blows down the Rhone Valley to the
Bouches-du-Rhône and the
Var Departments, and often reaches over one hundred kilometers an hour.
Bouches-du-Rhône
Marseille, in the
Bouches-du-Rhône, has an average of 59 days of rain a year, though when it does rain the rain is often torrential; the average annual rainfall is 544.4 centimeters. It snows an average of 2.3 days a year, and the snow rarely remains long. Marseille has an average of 2835.5 hours of sunshine a year. The average minimum temperature in January is 2.3 degrees C., and the average maximum temperature in July is 29.3 degrees C. The mistral blows an average of one hundred days a year.
The Var
Toulon and the Department of the
Var (which includes
St. Tropez and
Hyeres) have a climate slightly warmer, dryer and sunnier than Nice and the Alpes-Maritime, but also less sheltered from the wind. Toulon has an average of 2899.3 hours of sunshine a year, making it the sunniest city in metropolitan France, The average maximum daily temperature in August is 29.1 degrees C., and the average daily minimum temperature in January is 5.8 degrees C. The average annual rainfall is 665 millimeters, with the most rain from October to November. Strong winds blow an average of 118 days a year in Toulon, compared with 76 days at Frejus further east. The strongest Mistral wind recorded in Toulon was 130 kilometers an hour.
Alpes-Maritime
Nice and the
Alpes-Maritime Department are sheltered by the
Alps, and are the most protected part of the Mediterranean coast. The winds in this department are usually gentle, blowing from the sea to the land, though sometimes the Mistral blows strongly from the northwest, or, turned by the mountains, from the east. In 1956 a mistral wind from the northwest reached the speed of 180 kilometers an hour at Nice airport.[ Sometimes in summer the scirocco brings high temperatures and reddish desert sand from Africa. (See
Winds of Provence.)
Rainfall is infrequent- 63 days a year, but can be torrential, particularly in September, when storms and rain are caused by the difference between the colder air inland and the warm Mediterranean water temperature (20-24 degrees C.). The average annual rainfall in Nice is 767 millimeters, more than in Paris, but concentrated in fewer days.
Snow is extremely rare, usually falling once every ten years. 1956 was a very exceptional year, when 20 centimeters of snow blanketed the coast. In January 1985 the coast between Cannes and Menton received 30 to 40 centimeters of snow. In the mountains, the snow is present from November to May.
Nice has an annual average of 2694 hours of sunshine. The average maximum daily temperature in Nice in August is 28 degrees C., and the average minimum daily temperature in January is 6 degrees C.
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence
The Department of
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence has a Mediterranean climate in the lower valleys under one thousand meters in altitude and an
alpine climate in the high valleys, such as the valleys of the Blanche, the Haut Verdon and the
Ubaye, which are over 2500 meters high. The alpine climate in the higher mountains is moderated by the warmer air from the Mediterranean.
Haute-Provence has unusually high summer temperatures for its altitude and latitude (44 degrees north). The average summer temperature is 22 to 23 degrees C. at an altitude of 400 meters, and 18 to 19 degrees C. at the altitude of 1000 meters; and the winter average temperatures is 4 to 5 degrees C. at 400 meters and 0 C. at 1000 meters. The lower valleys have 50 days of freezing temperatures a year, more in the higher valleys. Sometimes the temperatures in the high valleys can reach -30 degrees C. Because of this combination of high mountains and Mediterreanean air, it not unusual that the region frequently has some of the lowest winter temperatures and some of the hottest summer temperatures in France.
Rainfall is Haute-Provence is infrequent- 60 to 80 days a year - but can be torrential; 650 to 900 mm. a year in the foothills and plateaus of the southwes, and in the valley of the Ubaye; and 900 to 1500 mm. in the mountains. Most rainfall comes in the autumn, in brief and intense storms; from mid-June to mid-August, rain falls during brief but violent thunderstorms. Thunder can be heard 30 to 40 days a year.
Snow falls in the mountains from November to May, and in midwinter can be found down to altitude of 1000-1200 meters on the shady side of the mountains and 1300 to 1600 meters on the sunny side. Snowfalls are usually fairly light, and melt rapidly.
The
Mistral (wind) is a feature of the climate in the western part of the Department, blowing from the north and the northwest, bringing clear and dry weather. The eastern part of the department is more protected from the Mistral. The
Marin (wind) comes from the south, bringing warm air, clouds and rain.
Haute-Provence is one of the sunniest regions of France, with an average of between 2550 and 2650 hours of sunshine annually in the north of the department, and 2700 to 2800 hours in the southwest. The clear nights and sunny days cause a sharp difference between night time and daytime temperatures. Because of the clear nights, the region is home of important observatories, such as the
Observatory of Haute-Provence in Saint-Michel-Observatoire.
The Vaucluse
The
Vaucluse is the meeting point of three of the four different climatic zones of France; it has a
Mediterranean climate in the south, an
alpine climate in the northeast, around the mountains of Vaucluse and the massif of the
Baronnies; and a
continental climate in the northwest. The close proximity of these three different climates tends to moderate all of them, and the Mediterranean climate usually prevails.
Orange in the Vaucluse has 2595 hours of sunshine a year. It rains an average of 80 days a year, for a total of 693.4 millimeters a year. The maximum average temperature in July is 29.6 degrees C., and the average minimum temperature in January is 1.3 degrees C. There are an average of 110 days of strong winds a year.
Language and literature of Provence
Historically the language spoken in Provence was provençal, a dialect of the
occitan language, also known as
langue d'oc, and closely related to
Catalan. There are several regional variations:
vivaro-alpin, spoken in the Alps; and the
provençal variations of south, including the maritime, the rhoadanien (in the Rhone Valley) and the
niçois), in Nice.
Niçois is the archaic form of provençal closest to the original language of the
troubadors, and is sometimes to said to be literary language of its own. .
Provençal was widely spoken in Provence until the beginning of the 20th century, when the French government launched an intensive and largely successful effort to replace regional languages with French. Today Provençal is taught in schools and universities in the region, but is spoken regularly by a small number of people, probably less than five hundred thousand, mostly elderly.
Writers and Poets in the Occitane Language
The golden age of
Provencal Literature, more correctly called
Occitan literature, was the
11th century and the
12th century, when the
troubadours broke away from classical
Latin literature and composed romances and love songs in their own vernacular language. Among the most famous troubadours was
Folquet de Marseille, whose love songs became famous all over Europe, and who was praised by
Dante in his
Divine Comedy. In his later years, Folquet gave up poetry to become the Abbot of
Le Thoronet Abbey, and then Bishop of Toulouse, where he fiercely persecuted the
Cathars.
In the middle of the 19th century there was a literary movement to revive the language, called the
Félibrige, led by the poet
Frédéric Mistral ([1830-1914),who shared the
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1904.
Provencal writers and poets who wrote in Occitan include:
French Authors from Provence
Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897) was the most best-known French writer from and about Provence in the 19th century, though he lived mostly in Paris and Champrosay. He was best known for his Lettres de mon moulin (eng: Letters from my Mill) (1869) and the Tartarin de Tarascon trilogy (1872, 1885,1890). His story L'Arlésienne (1872) was made into a three-act play with music by Bizet.
Marcel Pagnol (1895-1970), born in Aubagne, is known both as a filmmaker and for his stories of his childhood, Le Chateau de la Mere, La Gloire de mon Pere, and Le Temps des secrets. He was the first filmmaker to become a member of the Academie Francaise in 1946.
Colette (Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette) (1873-1954), although she wasn't from Provence, became particularly attached to Saint-Tropez. After World War II, she headed a committee which saw that the village, badly-damaged by the war, was restored to its original beauty and character
Jean Giono (1895-1970), born in Manosque, wrote about peasant life in Provence, inspired by his imagination and by his vision of Ancient Greece.
Paul Arène (1843-1896), born in Sisteron, wrote about life and the countryside around his home town.
Emigrés, Exiles and Expatriates
In the 19th and 20th century, the climate and lifestyle of Provence attracted writers almost as much as it attracted painters. It was particularly popular among British, American and Russian writers in the 1920s and 1930s,.
Edith Wharton (1862-1937), bought Sainte-Claire le Château, a former convent, in the hills above Hyères, where she lived during the winters and springs and where she wrote The Age of Innocence (1920).
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) and his wife Zelda first visited the Riviera in 1924, stopping at Hyères, Cannes and Monte Carlo, eventually staying at St. Raphaël, where he wrote much of The Great Gatsby and began Tender is the Night.
Ivan Bunin (1870-1953), the first Russian writer to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, went to France after the Russian Revolution, set several of his short stories on the Côte d'Azur, and had a house in Grasse.
Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) bought a house, the Villa Mauresque, in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat in 1928, and, except for the years of World War II, spent much of his time there until his death.
Other English-speaking writers who live in or have written about Provence include:
Peter Mayle
Carol Drinkwater
John Lanchester
Music From or About Provence
Music written about Provence includes:
The saxophone concerto Tableaux de Provence (Pictures of Provence) composed by Paule Maurice.
Georges Bizet, 'L'Arlésienne'.
Darius Milhaud, 'Suite Provençale'
Painters in Provence
Artists have been painting in Provence since prehistoric times; paintings of bisons, seals, penguins and horses dating to between 27,000 and 19,000 b.c. were found in the Cosquer Cave near Marseille.
The 14th century wooden ceiling of the cloister of Fréjus Cathedral has a remarkable series of paintings of biblical scenes, fantastic animals, and scenes from daily life, painted between 1350 and 1360. They include paintings of a fallen angel with the wings of a bat, a demon with the tail of a serpent, angels playing instruments, a tiger, an elephant, an ostrich, domestic and wild animals, a mermaid, a dragon, a centaur, a butcher, a knight, and a juggler.
Nicolas Froment (1435-1486) was the most important painter of Provence during the Renaissance, best known for his triptych of the Burning Bush,(around 1476) commissioned by King René I of Naples. The painting shows the Announciation to the shepherds, with the Virgin Mary and Christ above the burning bush. The wings of the triptych show King Rene with Mary Magdalen, St. Anthony and St. Maurice on one side, and Queen Jeanne de Laval, with Saint Catherine, St. John the Evangelist, and St. Nicholas on the other.
Louis Bréa (1450-1523) was a 15th century painter, born in Nice, whose work is found in churches from Genoa to Antibes. His Retable of Saint-Nicholas (1500) is found in Monaco, and his Retable de Notre-Dame-de-Rosaire (1515) is found in Antibes.
Pierre Paul Puget,(1620-1694),born in Marseille, was a painter of portraits and religious scenes, but was better known for his sculptures, found in Toulon Cathedral, outside the city hall of Toulon, and in the Louvre. There is mountain named for him near Marseille, and a square in Toulon.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, many of the most famous painters in the world converged on Provence, drawn by the climate and the clarity of the light. The special quality of the light is partly a result of the Mistral wind, which removes dust from the atmosphere, greatly increasing visibility.
Paul Cezanne (1839-1906), was born in Aix-en-Provence, and lived and worked there most of his life. The local landscapes, particularly Montagne Sainte-Victoire, featured often in his work. He also painted frequently at L'Estaque.
Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890). Van Gogh lived little more than two years in Provence, but his fame is a painter is largely a result of what he painted there. He lived in Arles from February 1888 to May 1889, and then in Saint-Remy from May 1889 until May 1890.
Auguste Renoir (1841-1919). Renoir visited Beaulieu, Grasse, Saint Raphael and Cannes, before finally settling in Cagnes-sur-Mer in 1907, where he bought a farm in hills and built a new house and workshop on the grounds. He continued to paint there until his death in 1919. His house is now a museum.
Henri Matisse (1869-1954). Matisse first visited St. Tropez in 1904. In 1917 he settled in Nice, first at the Hotel Beau Rivage, then the Hotel de la Mediterranee, then la Villa des Allies in Cimiez. In 1921 he lived in an apartment at 1 place Felix Faure in Nice, next to the flower market and overlooking the sea, where he lived until 1938. He then moved to the Hotel Regina in the hills of Cimiez, above Nice. During World War II he lived in Vence, then returned to Cimiez, where he died and is buried.
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973). Picasso spent each summer from 1919 to 1939 on the Cote d'Azur, and moved there permanently in 1946, first at Vallauris, then at Mougins, where he spent his last years.
Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947). Bonnard retired to and died at Le Cannet.
Georges Braque (1882-1963). Braque painted frequently at L'Estaque between 1907 and 1910.
Henri-Edmond Cross (1856-1910). Cross discovered the cote d'Azur in 1883 and painted at Monaco and Hyeres.
Maurice Denis (1870-1943.) Denis painted at St. Tropez and Bandol.
Andre Derain (1880-1954). Derain painted at L'Estaque and Martigues.
Raoul Dufy (1877-1953), whose wife was from Nice, painted in Marseille and Martigues.
Albert Marquet (1873-1947), painted at Marseille, St. Tropez and L'Estaque.
Claude Monet (1840-1927). Monet visited Menton, Bordighera, Juan-les-Pins, Monte-Carlo, Nice, Cannes, Beaulieu and Villefranche,and painted a number of seascapes of Cap Martin, near Menton, and at Cap d'Antibes.
Edvard Munch (1863-1944.) Munch visited and painted in Nice and Monte-Carlo (where he developed a passion for gambling), and rented a villa at Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat in 1891.
Paul Signac (1863-1935). Signac visited St. Tropez in 1892, and bought a villa, La Hune, at the foot of citadel in 1897. It was at his villa that his friend, Henri Matisse, painted his famous Luxe, Calme and Volupté" in 1904. Signac made numerous paintings along the coast.
Source and Bibliography about artists on the Mediterranean
Méditerrranée de Courbet á Matisse, catalog of the exhibit at the Grand Palais, Paris from September 2000 to January 2001. Published by the Réunion des musées nationaux, 2000.
Provence and the History of Motion Pictures
Provence has a special place in the history of the motion picture - one of the first projected motion pictures, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat (eng: the entry of a train into the station of Ciotat), a fifty-second silent film, was made by Auguste and Louis Lumière at the train station of the coastal town of La Ciotat. It was shown to an audience in Paris on December 28 1895, caused a sensation, and the following year was the first film ever shown to a paid audience.
Provençal cuisine
The cuisine of Provence is the result of the warm, dry Mediterranean climate; the rugged landscape, good for grazing sheep and goats but, outside of the Rhone Valley, with poor soil for large-scale agriculture; and the abundant seafood on the coast. The basic ingredients are olives and olive oil; garlic; sardines, rockfish, sea urchins and octopus; lamb and goat; chickpeas; local fruits, such as grapes, peaches, apricots, strawberries, cherries, and the famous melons of Cavaillon.
The fish frequently found on menus in Provence are the rouget, a small red fish usually eaten grilled, and the loup, (known elsewhere in France as the bar), often grilled with fennel over the wood of grapevines (fr. sarments de vigne).
Bouillabaisse is the classic seafood dish of Marseille. The traditional version is made with three fish: rascasse (eng: scorpionfish), grondin (eng: sea robin), and congre (eng: European conger), plus an assortment of other fish and shellfish, such as saint-pierre (eng: John Dory); lotte (eng: monkfish); ursins (eng: sea urchins); crabs and sea spiders included for flavor. The seasoning is as important as the fish, including salt, pepper, onion, tomato, safron, fennel, sage, thyme, laurel, sometimes orange peel, and a cup of white wine or cognac. In Marseille the fish and the broth are served separately- the broth is served over thick slices of bread with rouille (see below.)
Escabeche is another popular seafood dish; the fish (usually sardines) are either poached or fried after being marinated overnight in vinegar or citrus juice.
An oursinade is the name of a sauce based on the coal of the sea urchin, and usually is used with fish, and also refers to a tasting of sea urchins.
Brandade de Morue is a thick cream made of cod crushed and mixed with olive oil, milk, garlic and sometimes truffles.
Rouille is a mayonnaise with red pimentos, often spread onto bread and added to fish soups.
Ratatouille is a traditional dish of stewed vegetables, which originated in Nice..
Aïoli is a thick mayonnaise made from olive oil flavored with crushed garlic. It often accompanies a bourride, a fish soup, or is served with potatoes and cod (fr. Morue). There are as many recipes as there are families in Provence.
Soupe au pistou, either cold or hot, usually made with fresh basil ground and mixed with olive oil, along with summer vegetables, such as white beans, green beans, tomatoes, summer squash, and potatoes.
Tapenade is a relish consisting of pureed or finely chopped olives, capers, and olive oil, usually spread onto bread and served as an hors d’œuvre.
Daube provençale is a stew made with cubed beef braised in wine, vegetables, garlic, and herbes de provence. Variations also call for olives, prunes, and flavoring with duck fat, vinegar, brandy, lavender, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, juniper berries, or orange peel. For best flavor, it's cooked in several stages, and cooled for a day between each stage to allow the flavors to meld together. In the Camargue area of France, bulls killed in the bull-fighting festivals are sometimes used for daube.
Fougasse is the traditional bread of Provence, round and flat with holes cut out by the baker. Modern versions are baked with olives or nuts inside.
La pissaladière is another speciality of Nice. Though it resembles a pizza, it's made with bread dough and the traditional variety never has a tomato topping. It is usually sold in bakeries, and is topped with a bed of onions, lightly browned, and a kind of paste, called pissalat, made from sardines and anchovies, and the small black olives of Nice, called caillettes.
Socca is a speciality of Nice- it's a round flat cake made of chickpea flour and olive oil, like the Italian farinata. It is baked in the oven in a large pan more than a meter in diameter, then seasoned with pepper and eaten with the fingers while hot. In Toulon socca is known as La Cade. (External Link
)
The Calisson is the traditional cookie of Aix-en-Provence, made from a base of almond paste flavored with confit of melon and orange. They have been made in Aix-en-Provence since the 17th century.
The tarte Tropezienne is a tart of pastry cream (crème pâtissière) invented by a St. Tropez pastry chef named Alexandre Micka in the 1950s, based on a recipe he brought from his native Poland. In 1955, he was chef on the set of the film And God Created Women when actress Brigitte Bardot suggested he name the cake La Tropezienne. It is now found in bakeries throughout the Var.(External Link)
The gâteau des Rois is a type of Epiphany cake found all over France; the Provençal version is different because it's made of brioche in a ring, flavored with the essence of orange flowers and covered with sugar and fruit confit.
The Thirteen desserts is a Christmas tradition in Provence, when thirteen different dishes, representing Jesus and the twelve apostles, and each with a different significance, are served after the large Christmas meal.
Wines of Provence
The wines of Provence were probably introduced into Provence around 600 B.C. by the Greek Phoceans who founded Marseille and Nice. After the Roman occupation, in 120 B.C. the Roman Senate forbid the growing of vines and olives in Provence, in order to protect the profitable trade in exporting Italian wines, but in the late Roman empire retired soldiers from Roman Legions settled in Province and were allowed to grow grapes.
The Romans complained about the competition from and poor quality of the wines of Provence. In the First Century A.D. the Roman poet Martial, condemned the wines of Marseille as "terrible poisons, and never sold at a good price.".
As recently as the 1970s the wines of Provence had the reputation of being rather ordinary: In 1971 wine critic Hugh Johnson wrote: "The whites are dry and can lack the acidity to be refreshing; the reds are straightforward, strong and a trifle dull; it's usually the rosés, often orange-tinted, which have most appeal." He added, "Cassis and Bandol distinguish themselves for their white and red wines respectively. Cassis (no relation of the blackcurrant syrup) is livelier than the run of Provencal white wine, and Bandol leads the red in much the same way."
Since that time, cultivation of poorer varieties has been reduced and new technologies and methods have improved the quality considerably.
The wines of Provence are grown under demanding conditions; hot weather and abundant sunshine (
